Publications 2002

191 - Access to Energy in Developing Countries (pdf 105KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2002
Increasing access to energy in developing countries has proved to be a challenging and contentious issue within the international development community. Agencies are now realising the limitations of past energy-related interventions and undertaking a widespread review of policy in this area. In the UK, the Department for International Development (DFID) is currently embarking on a new approach. This briefing outlines the current scale of energy needs in developing countries, the issues associated with meeting these needs and the role of the UK in adopting a new perspective.

190 - Access to Sanitation in Developing Countries (pdf 114KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2002
In 2000, 40% of the world's population lacked access to basic sanitation. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg in the summer of 2002, the international community agreed to a target to halve the proportion of people who lack access to basic sanitation by 2015. This briefing outlines the scale of the challenge and reasons for improving access to sanitation. It also examines the technical, economic, social, and institutional issues that will be faced in delivering the target, and the UK's contribution towards that end.

189 - Public Dialogue in Science and Technology (pdf 131KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
In the past few years many organisations have adopted various forms of 'public dialogue' to address sensitive areas of scientific and technological policy. In May 2002, in a wide-ranging speech on science and technology, the Prime Minister called for "a robust and engaging dialogue with the public." This briefing updates POST's previous work in this area, focusing in particular on radioactive waste and GM crops.

188 - Air Quality in the UK (pdf 149KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
Air quality in the UK has improved significantly since the time of the Great Smog in London 50 years ago. This POSTnote explores the major steps contributing to that process, examines current air quality issues, mainly related to traffic emissions, and considers trends, developments in policy and future research requirements in air quality.

187 - Intelligent Transport (pdf 115KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
Intelligent transport systems (ITS) combine information technology and communications for transport applications. By allowing communication to, from and between vehicles, ITS could address a number of the aims of the Government's integrated transport policy, such as reducing congestion and accident rates and improving network management. ITS can also enable electronic fee collection in road charging schemes. This briefing describes current and future applications of ITS in road transport. It goes on to discuss questions such as financing, management and safety which need attention if such schemes are to be implemented successfully.

186 - Prospects for a Hydrogen Economy (pdf 249KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
There is increasing interest in the use of hydrogen as the basis for an energy system with low carbon dioxide emissions. Hydrogen could be used as a fuel for road transport, distributed heat and power generation, and for energy storage. This has led to discussion of a ‘hydrogen economy' - widespread and diverse production and use of hydrogen. This briefing outlines the basis of interest in hydrogen and examines technologies for its production, handling and use. Policy issues surrounding technology and market development of hydrogen are also considered.

185 - Copyright & the Internet (pdf 241KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
The internet has expanded electronic access to music, films, books and other digital content, challenging existing notions of copyright protection and enforcement. A recent EC Directive addresses the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) on the internet; the UK patent office is consulting until 31 October 2002 on proposed changes to UK legislation. This note examines the technological, legal, and enforcement issues as the UK faces the December 2002 deadline for implementing the Directive.

184 - Caesarean Sections (pdf 242KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
One in five births in the UK are now by caesarean section (CS). Public debate has focussed attention on how medical staff and/or mothers decide on a CS birth. The impact of CS on maternal and child health, and the high cost of CS compared with vaginal birth, make this a public health issue. Policies are set at a local level, leading to a wide variation in practice. The Government has recently recognised a need for national standards and clinical guidelines in this area. This briefing examines reasons for the increase in the CS rate and implications for health policy.

183 - Electronic Privacy (pdf 240KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
The growth in use of the internet and other forms of electronic communication has resulted in a significant increase in the capacity to collect and process data about individuals electronically, with consequent implications for personal privacy. Concerns have also been expressed about the privacy aspects of recent legislation aimed at curbing terrorism and crime. This note examines the potential for commercial organisations and the public sector to infringe the privacy of digital communications, how the law can protect such communications and the implications for Government policy.

182 - Peer Review (pdf 260KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2002
Peer review is the process used to determine how science funding is allocated (£1.6 billion to be distributed by the UK research councils in 2002-03), which research is published and where it is published. It is of interest not only to the scientific community: the trend towards evidence based policy means that peer-reviewed science informs decision making across an increasingly wide range of areas. In recent years a number of high profile cases have emerged highlighting possible flaws in the peer review process. This briefing note describes how peer review operates, provides an overview of its strengths and weaknesses, and considers what improvements might exist.

181 - Broadband Internet Access (pdf 260KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
There are now over 700,000 subscribers to high speed 'broadband' internet access in the UK. With 100,000 new customers being connected each month, progress is being made towards the Government's target "for the UK to have the most extensive and competitive broadband market in the G7 by 2005". However, the UK still has one of the lowest numbers of broadband subscribers in the G7 and a third of UK households are not covered by the main broadband providers. This briefing outlines how broadband internet access can be received, examines international comparisons and considers options to encourage take-up and coverage.

180 - The UK Biobank (pdf 245KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
In June 1999, the Wellcome Trust and Medical Research Council (MRC) announced a UK Population Biomedical Collection. This project - now called the UK Biobank - will establish a UK genetic databank by collecting blood samples from some 500,000 people. Researchers will apply for access to the Biobank data to study the factors behind common serious disorders such as heart disease, stroke, cancer and diabetes. This briefing describes the background to the UK Biobank, and examines issues raised such as consent, confidentiality, ownership and oversight.

179 - Nuclear Terrorism (pdf 249KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
Recent reports of alleged terrorist plans to build a 'dirty bomb' have heightened longstanding concerns about nuclear terrorism. This briefing outlines possible forms of attack, such as: detonation of a nuclear weapon; attacks involving radioactive materials; attacks on nuclear facilities. Legislation addressing these risks and the UK's strategy for coping with them are also considered.

178 - Access to water in developing countries (pdf 249KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2002
Sufficient clean water is essential to everyone's wellbeing. Yet nearly 20% of the world's population does not have ready access to drinking water and 40% lack sanitation facilities. The vast majority of these people are in developing countries and the United Nations has identified water use as a priority for international aid. Access to water is now recognised as a key issue in development and therefore will be high on the agenda in August 2002, when world leaders meet in Johannesburg to address key issues affecting 'sustainable development'. This briefing outlines the technological, social, economic and political issues influencing sustainable water use and examines the UK's role in helping to increase developing countries' capacity in this area.

177 - Floodforum.net - on online discussion (pdf 244KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2002
During January and February 2002, POST commissioned an online discussion ( floodforum.net) examining the causes, consequences and communication of flooding. Flooding in the UK puts at risk up to five million people and causes damage estimated at around £800 million each year. A number of possible causes of flooding are suggested: building on floodplains, alterations to river channels, changes in rainfall patterns and changes in agricultural and land management practice. Climate change is also predicted to increase flooding risk. This briefing updates a previous note ( Managing Flooding POSTnote 169, December 2001 (pdf 476KB)) by summarising the outcome floodforum.net, and outlines the Government's current consultation on the arrangements for funding flood and coastal defence.

A longer summary (38 pages) of the floodforum.net discussion is also available as POST Report E-6 (pdf 140KB) and a full content analysis as POST Report E-7 (pdf 204KB).

To consolidate our work in the area of flooding, POST convened a seminar in the House of Commons on 29 April 2002. Over 120 people participated and speakers included Elliot Morley MP, Minister for Flooding; Dr Jim Haywood, Head of the Environment Agency's National Flood Warning Centre; Mr Peter Barnett, Chairman of the National Flood Forum, Dr Nigel Arnell, from the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, and Professor Edmund Penning-Rowsell, Director of the Flood Hazard Research Centre at the University of Middlesex.

176 - Ratifying Kyoto (pdf 237KB)
Two page POSTnote, April 2002
The UK will shortly ratify the Kyoto Protocol for tackling climate change. This is part of a co-ordinated EU ratification programme agreed by EU environment ministers in March 2002. Before the EU can formally ratify the Protocol, each Member State must receive clearance from its national parliament. To inform this process in the UK, this briefing outlines: the Kyoto Protocol and the current UK/EU view; positions of other developed countries (particularly the USA, Australia, Russia and Japan); and the situation in developing countries.

175 - CCTV (pdf 248KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2002
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance of public areas, such as car parks, housing estates and town centres is increasingly commonplace. For example, 260 cameras monitor the boundaries of the Parliamentary estate. Recently, the Home Office allocated £170 million to fund public area CCTV schemes in England and Wales. This has prompted debate over whether CCTV surveillance reduces crime and whether current legislation appropriately regulates its use. This briefing describes how CCTV is used and examines issues such as its effectiveness, civil liberties and its use in court.

174 - Stem Cell Research (pdf 274KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2002
In January 2001, Parliament agreed regulations to allow research for therapeutic purposes on cells derived from human embryos. As part of this agreement, a House of Lords Select Committee on Stem Cell Research was formed to examine the issues in more detail. This briefing sets out recent legal and technical developments in the area of stem cell research and considers the issues they raise.

173 - Appraising major infrastructure projects (pdf 264KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2002
The Government wishes to speed the planning of major infrastructure projects (MIPs) to minimise what it sees as unnecessary delays. As part of a wider package, it is consulting on new procedures that would enable Parliament to make a 'Decision in Principle' on whether a MIP should go forward to detailed scrutiny on local issues at a planning inquiry. The Government intends that Parliament is able to "fully consider" a scheme, ensuring that there is "the opportunity for extensive public involvement". The House of Commons Procedure Committee and the Transport, Local Government and the Regions Select Committee are examining the proposals. This briefing focuses on what is meant by MIPs, and how they can be appraised.

A seminar to discuss these issues was held on 23 May 2002. A summary note of the seminar can be found here (pdf 74KB).

172 - Labelling GM Foods (pdf 215KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2002
No new GM foods have been approved in the EU since 1997. Recent European Commission proposals to extend the GM labelling regime could inadvertently result in this de facto moratorium being further extended. The Commission considers the moratorium illegal, and is concerned that it might be challenged through the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The new labelling proposals are intended to extend consumer choice, but the Government has expressed concerns that they might prove difficult to implement in practice. This briefing describes the background to the proposals and examines the options available.

171 - vCJD in the future (pdf 255KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2002
Variant Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (v-CJD) was first defined in the UK in 1996. It is widely assumed that v-CJD is caused by eating BSE-infected food. If so, the number of people potentially at risk of contracting the disease could be very large. However, there is considerable uncertainty over the likely future scale of the outbreak; it is not clear whether the 100 or so cases observed to date merely represent the 'tip of the iceberg', or whether the number affected has already peaked and is likely to tail off. This briefing outlines the main factors that will influence the number of future cases, considers models that estimate the total number of deaths, and discusses the policy implications.