Biological sciences and health
POSTnote 393 Improving Livestock (pdf 410KB)
Selective breeding has long been used by farmers to improve the quality of livestock. Over the past 10-15 years breeders have worked on developing broader breeding goals that incorporate animal health and welfare traits, as well as productivity. This note describes current technologies used in livestock breeding, research into future technologies and how the improvement of livestock can contribute towards future food security.
POSTnote 392 Livestock Disease (pdf 313KB)
The 2001 Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak cost the UK £6-9 billion. In 2010/11, the government spent £91 million compensating farmers for bovine TB. It is considering proposals for sharing costs and responsibilities for preventing and controlling disease with the livestock industry. This POSTnote examines disease threats to UK livestock, outlines prevention and control measures, and looks at factors likely to contribute to future disease.
POSTnote 391 An Ageing Workforce (pdf 247KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2011
Over the next decade, the changing age profile of the workforce will be the most significant development in the UK labour market, as a third of workers will be over 50 by 2020. Employers will be expected to respond to this demographic shift by making work more attractive and feasible for older workers, enabling them to work up to and beyond State Pension Age (SPA) if they are capable. This POSTnote examines the main challenges to the participation and productivity of older people in the workforce.
POSTnote 390 Clinical Trials (pdf 228KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2011
Clinical trials benefit the health and safety of patients by making proven new treatments available more quickly. This industry is also very important for the UK economy. However, recent years have seen a drop in the number of trials held in the UK. This POSTnote summarises some of the most important reasons behind this decline, and the actions being taken to improve the situation. It also highlights areas identified by key industry partners as opportunities for growth.
POSTnote 381 Mental capacity and Healthcare
(pdf 402KB)Four page POSTnote, June 2011
Adults with learning disabilities or suffering from dementia, brain injuries or mental illness may be unable to make health decision for themselves. At such times, others will need to decide in their place. The Mental Capacity Act
(2005) (MCA) provides a substitute decision-making framework. It exists alongside another such framework – the Mental Health Act (MHA). While the MHA is restricted to compulsory treatment for mental disorder, the MCA has a broader scope. It applies to physical and mental health as well as to welfare, finances, property and research participation. This POSTnote outlines how the
MCA is being interpreted in healthcare and how it works alongside the MHA.
POSTnote 375 - Detecting Deception (pdf 300KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2011
Deception detection technologies such as polygraphs have been available for decades, although their use is controversial. Newer techniques are being developed that aim to detect deception based on facial imaging or brain activity. This briefing outlines the scientific basis for deception detection technology and considers the implications of its use in different contexts.
367 - Biofortification (pdf 309KB)
Four page POSTnote November 2010
Breeding crops to enhance their nutritional composition, known as biofortification, is one potential strategy for addressing certain forms of undernutrition. This approach may be useful where there is a dependence on calorie-rich but nutrient-poor staple foods. This briefing describes developments in biofortification, examines its potential impact, and the implications for policy makers in the UK and abroad.
366 - UK Indoor Air Quality (pdf 392KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2010
It is well established that outdoor air pollution is harmful to human health. However, less attention has been paid to the potential health effects of indoor air pollution. This POSTnote describes sources of indoor air pollution, the evidence for adverse effects on human health and outlines possible policy responses.
364 – Drug Pricing (pdf 368KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2010
The government intends to reform the way in which drugs purchased by the NHS are priced. It aims to ensure that drug costs more fully reflect clinical benefit and to improve patient access to new treatments. This POSTnote outlines current pricing policy and examines other options to evaluate drug pricing, including “value-based” pricing.
(pdf 319KB)356 - Addictive Behaviours (pdf 319KB)
(pdf 319KB)Four page POSTnote, May 2010
Behaviours such as gambling and over-eating can become compulsive and are linked to personal and social problems. This note reviews research on the addictive dimensions of gambling, eating, sex, internet use and shopping. It provides an overview of factors contributing to addictive behaviours and the personal and social consequences. It also examines the implications for treatment provision, public health and prevention strategies and industry regulation.
352 - Counterfeit Medicines (pdf 198KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
Counterfeiting of medicines is increasing, is often linked to other criminal activities and poses risks to public health. It exposes people to medicines of unverified quality, safety and efficacy. This POSTnote considers the extent of the global counterfeit medicine trade, its impact in the UK and the technologies and policy options available to combat it. It also examines the risks and benefits of online pharmacy, one of the main ways in which counterfeits are distributed.
350 - Pets, Families and Interagency Working (pdf 167KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
All agencies, professions and individuals who have contact with children have a duty to safeguard them. Government guidance has highlighted the need for agencies to work together and share information to achieve this aim. It has been suggested that organisations that work with animals should be included in the safeguarding agenda on the basis that there may be an association between cruelty to animals and family violence. This POSTnote examines the evidence base for this assumption, and the rationale for cross-reporting between different agencies.
349 - Diagnosing Dementia (pdf 178KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
Dementia currently affects 700,000 people in the UK, yet only 1 in 3 cases receives a formal diagnosis from a doctor. Dementia costs the UK economy £17bn a year and is one of the main causes of disability in later life. A key aim of the Department of Health's 2009 National Dementia Strategy is early diagnosis. This is intended to improve quality of life through increased support, prevention of harm and reduction in care home admissions. This briefing outlines current diagnostic practices, research into newer tools and service provision proposals that aim to increase early diagnosis.
345 - Teaching Children to Read (pdf 124KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2009
Reading is the gateway to learning; without it, children cannot access a broad and balanced curriculum. Dyslexic difficulties are associated with negative educational, employment and economic outcomes, making reading-related issues relevant to various policy domains. This POSTnote explains the reading process and the underlying basis of specific reading difficulties. It also summarises different methods of reading instruction, and examines their use in the context of current and possible future policy directions.
339 - Nutritional Standards in UK Schools (pdf 115KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2009
In 2006, 617 million school meals were served in England alone. The situation regarding school meals differs in the constituent countries of the UK. In England, new legislation on minimum nutritional standards in schools began in 2008 in primary schools and will come into force in secondary schools by September 2009. It consists of food- and nutrient-based standards for school food. The devolved administrations have already implemented similar legislation and face similar issues in improving school food. This note outlines children's nutritional requirements, the take-up of school meals in the UK, the capacity to enforce the standards and the impact of children's diet on behaviour and learning.
337 - Treatments for Heroin and Cocaine Dependency (pdf 110KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2009
Some 11.3 million people in Britain have used an illicit drug at least once in their lifetime. Cocaine and heroin are the most damaging illicit drugs in terms of health impacts to dependent individuals and the cost of drug related crime. This POSTnote looks at the treatments currently available for heroin and cocaine dependency, assesses the prospects for new treatments, and examines the issues these raise.
333 - Regenerative Medicine (pdf 110KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2009
Regenerative medicine aims to restore the function of diseased or damaged tissues or organs by a variety of approaches, from cell-based therapies through tissue engineering to developing new medical devices. This offers potential medical benefits, but also poses regulatory challenges. This POSTnote looks at recent developments in this area and analyses the issues they pose for UK researchers and regulators.
331 - H1N1 'Swine flu' vaccine (pdf 89KB)
Two page POSTnote, May 2009
A novel strain of influenza (flu) virus subtype H1N1, originating from Mexico, is currently spreading across the globe. A vaccine against the strain could reduce its global impact but would take time to develop and manufacture. Different claims have been made about the time it would take to develop and produce a vaccine. This note describes how a pandemic vaccine for UK use would be manufactured, and alternative techniques for vaccine development and manufacture.
330 - Diet and Cancer (pdf 116KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2009
Research shows that the risk of developing some cancers is linked to lifestyle, and scientists estimate that 26% of UK cancers could be prevented by altering diet. This note examines the latest scientific research, advice and recommendations for a diet to lower cancer risk and the consequences for health policy. It also discusses the involvement of the government, charities, media and the food industry in giving dietary advice.
329 - Personalised Medicine (pdf 163KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2009
Risk of disease and response to treatment varies from person to person. This is due to variation in human genetic coding, interactions between one's genes and environment over a lifetime and the unique signature of the immune system. Defining the scope and nature of human biological variation allows the targeting of medical treatments to those most likely to benefit. Such treatments may include drugs or cell therapies tailored to a patient's history, genes and immunology. This POSTnote examines the state of research into human variability, and the prospects, challenges and policy implications of more personalised medical treatment.
328 - Delaying Gratification (pdf 111KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2009
Evidence shows that people may be biased towards seeking short-term rewards at the expense of greater long-term benefits. Several factors influence how biased people are likely to be towards the present. Understanding these could inform policies that encourage individuals to make important life choices that affect their own long-term interests. This note reviews evidence on the influence of time in decisionmaking, and looks at the implications for policy domains such as pensions, health and consumer affairs.
326 - Food Hygiene Standards (pdf 111KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2009
Food poisoning caused by microbes is a serious public health problem. Hygiene standards and procedures are laid down in food legislation to protect public health. However, improving food hygiene is not just a matter of implementing and enforcing regulations. This briefing describes recent developments in food regulation and examines options to improve food hygiene in businesses through monetary penalties, training and the use of local "Scores on the Doors" schemes.
316 - Cervical cancer (pdf 96KB)
Two page POSTnote, October 2008
Cervical cancer is the twelfth most common cancer in women in the UK and the second most common worldwide. It causes around 1,000 deaths each year in the UK. Cervical screening programmes have reduced mortality rates by 62% between 1987-2006. From autumn 2008, a UK-wide programme will immunise adolescent girls using a new vaccine against a sexually transmitted virus that can cause cervical cancer. This note gives an overview of cervical cancer prevention strategies, including vaccination, and the issues arising.
314 - UK vaccine capacity (pdf 111KB)
Four page POSTnote, August 2008
Annual seasonal influenza outbreaks and pandemic disease planning have generated parliamentary interest about the UK's position in sourcing adequate quantities of vaccines. A key policy issue concerns the extent to which the government should stimulate vaccine research and manufacturing capacity rather than it being led by the commercial interests of the pharmaceutical sector. This POSTnote gives an overview of the position in the UK and how public health interests are reconciled with those of industry.
311 - New anti-infectives (pdf 116KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2008
Infections account for about 10% of all deaths in the UK. The efficacy of all current anti-infectives is threatened by the spread of drug resistance factors, with some already made ineffective. Treatments are also required to tackle emerging diseases such as SARS. As a result, there is a pressing need for new antiinfective drugs. This briefing reviews the UK burden of infectious disease, current anti-infectives research and policy options to stimulate further drug development.
308 - Alternatives to custodial sentencing (pdf 113KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2008
There has been considerable recent debate about overcrowding in UK prisons. The system is struggling to accommodate the growing number of young offenders being given custodial sentences. This POSTnote sets out the scale of the problem and looks at recent trends in sentencing, with a particular focus on young offenders. It examines the factors linked with offending and asks whether better understanding of these can be used to target early actions aimed at deterring young people from offending. Finally, the note examines alternatives to custodial sentencing and assesses how successful these have been in practice.
302 - Autism (pdf 113KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2008
Autism affects how a person communicates, socialises and interprets the world. This can lead to wide ranging difficulties in every day life including forming relationships and living independently. Recent evidence that autism is more prevalent than previously recognised has put pressure on service providers and highlighted the need to train professionals to improve awareness of autism. This POSTnote describes autism and autism research, and considers policy approaches.
298 - Synthetic biology (pdf 121KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2008
Synthetic biology aims to design and build new biological parts and systems or to modify existing ones to carry out novel tasks. It is an emerging research area, described by one researcher as "moving from reading the genetic code to writing it." Prospects include new therapeutics, environmental biosensors and novel methods to produce food, drugs, chemicals or energy. This POSTnote outlines recent developments, the possible applications and risks of synthetic biology and examines policy options for the development and governance of the research.
297 - HIV in the UK (pdf 121KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2007
HIV and AIDS are one of the four most expensive areas of infectious disease, costing the NHS £400m per year for treatment alone. New HIV diagnoses in the UK continue to rise. The populations most affected by the virus have shifted considerably in recent years. Men who have Sex with Men (MSM) remain at most risk of contracting HIV but diagnoses are also particularly concentrated among Black Africans. UK-born heterosexuals are also at increasing risk. This POSTnote presents current infection and diagnosis trends, and discusses whether policies for HIV testing, education, and prevention reflect these changing patterns.
287-Eating disorders (pdf 118KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
1.1 million people in the UK are estimated to be directly affected by eating disorders . These represent a significant public health concern due to their severe physical and emotional consequences and high rate of recurrence. They often develop during adolescence, thus impacting on social development and education. This POSTnote reviews the prevalence, possible causes and treatment of eating disorders, and highlights issues relevant to government policy in this area.
285-Better brains (pdf 119KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2007
As part of the Foresight Brain Science, Addiction and Drugs project a state of science review was carried out into current knowledge in the area of cognitive enhancers. These are factors that improve functions such as memory, learning and attention. The review concluded there would be significant improvements in our understanding of this area in the next twenty years, and that these would lead to an increase in the development of cognitive enhancers. It raised the possibility of otherwise healthy individuals using enhancers to boost their cognitive abilities. This POSTnote reviews existing methods of cognitive enhancement along with likely future developments, and considers the regulatory and ethical questions that they pose.
284-Tackling malaria in developing countries (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2007
Malaria is a parasitic disease responsible for the deaths of at least a million people every year, 90% of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa. The greatest death toll occurs in children under five. Despite effective prevention and treatment methods, the burden of malaria remains high. The UK has agreed to the UN Millennium Development Goal of halting the spread of malaria by 2015. This note examines progress towards this target and considers the remaining UK and international priorities.
283-Health behaviour (pdf 121KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2007
Behaviours such as stopping smoking, moderation of alcohol intake, healthy eating and physical activity can reduce the risks of developing serious illnesses such as cancer, heart disease and type 2 diabetes. However, promoting the uptake of healthier behaviour presents challenges, both at the individual and population levels. This POSTnote will describe the importance of health behaviour change and the challenges to such change.
278-Alzheimer's and dementia (pdf 156KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2007
In the UK, an estimated 750,000 people suffer from Alzheimer's and other dementia disorders. Dementia makes independent living either difficult or impossible in the later stages. As the UK population ages, the number of cases are predicted to rise over the next two decades placing a significant demand on health and social services. This POSTnote reviews current understanding of the causes of dementia, the hopes for interventions, and the UK's current position in terms of handling future demand for services.
276-Ethnicity and health (pdf 121KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2007
Black and minority ethnic (BME) groups generally have worse health than the overall population, although some BME groups fare much worse than others, and patterns vary from one health condition to the next. Evidence suggests that the poorer socio-economic position of BME groups is the main factor driving ethnic health inequalities. Several policies have aimed to tackle health inequalities in recent years, although to date, ethnicity has not been a consistent focus. This POSTnote reviews the evidence on ethnic health inequalities, the causes and policy options.
266 -Children's medicines (pdf 116KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2006
All medicines undergo clinical trials to assess their safety, quality and effectiveness. Most tests use adults; fewer than 50% of children's medicines have actually been tested in children. A new European regulation that aims to increase the development and testing of medicines specifically for use in children will become law in the UK by the end of 2006. This note examines current and future regulation of research into, and clinical trials of, children's medicines and discusses the issues raised.
258 - The national DNA database (pdf 108KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2006
Over 3 million DNA profiles from individuals are now on the National DNA Database® (NDNAD) and this number continues to increase. A series of legislative changes have contributed to the extensive expansion of the NDNAD. While there is overall support for the Database as an intelligence tool, there is a need to balance the benefits to society and individual rights. This POSTnote will provide an overview of the NDNAD and cover issues such as the retention of samples, ethical oversight of the Database and the extraction of information from DNA.
257 - Healthy life expectancy (pdf 110KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2006
Will the UK's ageing population be vibrant and independent, or suffer from greater chronic ill health? Healthy life expectancy (HLE) is commonly used to try to assess this: it is an estimate of how many years are lived in good health over the lifespan. Such data are invaluable for predicting future needs, evaluating health programmes and identifying trends and inequalities. They can inform planning of health and social services, long term care and pensions. This POSTnote reviews the current debate on HLE, outlines possible future scenarios, and looks at the pros and cons of different HLE measures.
248 - Science in Court (pdf 122KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2005
Science is increasingly used in court, where it appears in a variety of guises. Equipment used to gather evidence for the courts may be well-established (for example, breathalysers) or its scientific validity may still be in question (for example, lie detectors). Scientists themselves may act as expert witnesses, presenting evidence in courts. This briefing note will consider how courts determine what science to accept, the options for accrediting science and expert witnesses and how disagreements between scientists are managed.
247-Infection Control in Healthcare Settings (pdf 134KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2005
Healthcare associated infections (HCAIs) are infections transmitted to patients (and healthcare workers) as a result of healthcare procedures, in hospital and other healthcare settings. Recent years have seen an increase in the awareness of HCAIs, in particular those caused by antibiotic-resistant 'superbugs'. This POSTnote describes the nature, spread and treatment of HCAIs. It focuses on challenges for public policy in their detection, prevention and management.
246-Changing Role of Pharmacies (pdf 119KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2005
In 2003, the Department of Health (DH) set out its intention to increase the public's choice of when, where and how to get medicines. The introduction of the new community pharmacy contractual framework in April 2005 will help to achieve this. This POSTnote will examine the changing role of pharmacy and the availability of medicines by prescription, over-the-counter and remotely by mail-order or the internet.
244- Binge drinking and public health (pdf 121KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2005
Alcohol misuse, in the form of binge drinking (BD), is prevalent among young people and seems to be a distinctive characteristic of the British drinking culture. Over the last 2 years the Government has reformed licensing laws and implemented a strategy aimed at reducing alcohol-related harm. This briefing describes the extent of BD in the UK, examines the current legislation and analyses the policy implications.
243- Ethical scrutiny of research (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2005
Recent legislation such as the Data Protection Act, Human Tissue Bill and Mental Capacity Act emphasize the importance of ethical scrutiny of research on human participants. Despite this, the process of ethical review is controversial. The UK system for ethical review is complex and varies between different types of research. A recent review of NHS research made a number of recommendations for changing the ethical review process. This note describes the various systems for ethical review of research involving humans and outlines key issues with the existing system.
241- Fighting diseases of developing countries (pdf 130KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2005
Better drugs and vaccines are needed to fight HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), malaria and other tropical diseases. Pharmaceutical research has typically focussed on developing drugs, vaccines and other interventions for diseases prevalent in developed countries, where people can afford to buy treatments; it has tended to overlook those disorders that predominantly affect developing countries. This briefing outlines the extent of the problem, describes a number of recent initiatives to stimulate research and development (R&D) into diseases of the developing world and examines the UK policy issues associated with funding such research.
240- Gene therapy (pdf 116KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2005
In 2003 the Government pledged £50 million over three years to harness the potential of developments in genetics for the benefit of NHS patients. £10 million of this has been earmarked for gene therapy research and development. This briefing introduces gene therapy, outlines the potential benefits for patients and examines current regulatory and technical issues.
235-Data protection and medical research (pdf 122KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2005
Introduction of the NHS National Programme for IT (NPfIT) in England and Wales will potentially allow researchers greater access to medical data. Increased use of electronic patient records raises concerns about consent, confidentiality and security. This note outlines the types of patient data that are stored, explains their use in medical research, examines the current regulatory system and analyses issues such as anonymisation, confidentiality and consent.
232-UK health impacts of climate change (pdf 134KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2004
How we respond to climate change, both globally and in the UK, is an issue of public concern. To date, the main focus has been on the likely environmental and economic outcomes. However, there is growing recognition that there may be significant impacts from climate change on human health. This POSTnote outlines the potential impacts of climate change on health in the UK and examines the options open to public policy makers.
231-Organ transplants (pdf 122KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2004
People awaiting organ transplants considerably exceeds the organs available. This POSTnote describes the 'organ gap' - the extent to which demand for organ (and tissue) transplantation exceeds the availability of transplantable organs. It examines the pros and cons of various options for increasing donation rates including 'opt-in' (the current UK scheme) and 'opt-out' (presumed consent) and considers the use of these systems in other countries. Potential alternative treatments for the future, such as stem cell therapies, will not be discussed in this note.
229-EU chemicals policy (pdf 136KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2004
New chemicals marketed in the EU have to undergo stringent safety assessments to evaluate their potential health and environmental impacts. The majority of chemicals that have been on the market for some time ("existing chemicals") have not undergone such strict assessments. New proposals (REACH - Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of CHemicals) currently before the European Parliament are designed to eliminate the differences between existing and new chemicals, and to address concerns over the potential effects of chemical exposure on human health and the environment. This briefing describes the proposals and examines issues such as the likely impact of REACH on competitiveness, world trade and animal welfare.
228-Drug tests (pdf 144KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2004
The increasing availability and use of screening tests for illegal drugs is an important issue for government and the public, receiving considerable attention recently. Drug testing may be used in the workplace, schools, the criminal justice system and privately. This briefing looks at the prevalence of drug use, the types of test currently available and their reliability, the extent of their use, and examines the issues that arise.
227-NHS genetic testing (pdf 144KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2004
The sequencing of the human genome has generated large amounts of genetic data. Research is now focused on the difficult task of translating these raw data into clinically useful information and therapies. New genetic tests are considered by some as likely to be among the first applications. This POSTnote looks at the prospects for genetic tests and testing technology and examines a series of policy, organisational and ethical issues raised by current and possible applications.
226-Dyslexia & dyscalculia (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2004
Dyslexia is a learning difficulty involving problems in acquiring literacy skills. Dyscalculia involves specific difficulties in acquiring arithmetical skills. Dyslexic and dyscalculic learners may have educational needs that differ from those of other learners. Strategies to improve literacy and numeracy might therefore benefit from taking these groups into account. This POSTnote presents recent research on dyslexia and dyscalculia and outlines current educational policies relating to both. It also examines issues such as early identification and ongoing support for dyslexic and dyscalculic students throughout their education.
221-Regulating stem cell therapies (pdf 118KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2004
As research on human stem cells continues apace, new frameworks may be required to regulate their use. Such cells can be used as medicines, as transplants or transfusions to regenerate organs and tissues, or in conjunction with more advanced therapies such as gene therapy. Some of these applications are already subject to strict regulation; others are not. This briefing examines recent developments in this field and considers future regulatory options.
219-Vaccines and public health (pdf 118KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2004
Public anxiety over the MMR vaccine led to decreased MMR uptake and a rise in measles cases. Although latest figures suggest this trend may be changing, public concerns about vaccination could affect the future success of immunisation programmes. This POSTnote summarises trends in outbreaks of disease and vaccine uptake within the UK. Issues addressed include public attitudes, vaccine availability and vaccine safety.
217-Teenage sexual health (pdf 119KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2004
Recent reports have drawn attention to the increasing prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the UK. This trend has been most apparent in young people aged 16-19. STIs are associated with several potentially serious health outcomes, including infertility and cervical cancer. This briefing describes recent trends in the sexual health of 16-19 year olds, discusses potential contributing factors and analyses two major Government initiatives in this area.
215-Openness and animal procedures (pdf 117KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2004
A number of developments - including the introduction of the Freedom of Information Act 2000 - have led to calls for more openness about the costs and benefits of animal procedures. This could require modification of the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act (A(SP)A) 1986, which restricts disclosure of confidential information about animal procedures. This POSTnote looks at the pros and cons of greater openness, and analyses ways in which greater openness could be achieved.
211-GM crops in the UK (pdf 109KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2004
The government is expected to set out its policy on genetically modified (GM) crops in early 2004. To inform this it has commissioned a scientific review, a costs and benefits study and a public debate, each of which has now reported its findings. Its policy will also be informed by the results of the farm-scale evaluations (FSEs) of GM crops. Since 1998 the EU has had a moratorium on GM crops and products. This led the US and others to file a case against the EU with the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This briefing summarises the results of these strands, describes recent international developments, and analyses the main options for the future of GM crops in the UK.
210 - HIV/AIDS in developing countries (pdf 250KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2003
HIV/AIDS is an increasing problem in developing countries. Bodies such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) deliver a range of education, prevention and treatment initiatives, but the epidemic continues to grow. This note describes the scale of the epidemic, outlines recent policy initiatives and analyses the effectiveness of current programmes
206 - Smoking in public places (pdf 66KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2003
The Chief Medical Officer has called on government to consider introducing legislation to ban smoking in all enclosed public places. Several other countries have already introduced such laws. This briefing considers the evidence that passive smoking causes disease; describes government policy on passive smoking; and discusses options for reducing exposure of staff and customers in public places to tobacco smoke.
205 - Childhood obesity (pdf 111KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2003
Obesity is a growing problem in the UK and elsewhere and is currently the subject of a Commons Health Committee inquiry. The most recent (2001) estimates for England suggest that some 8.5% of 6 year olds and 15% of 15 year olds are obese. This is a concern because obesity is an important risk factor for mortality and a range of chronic diseases in adult life. This note builds on the POST report Improving children's diet (pdf 1.1MB) (pdf 1.1MB) and describes recent trends in obesity, examines possible causes and analyses policy responses.
204 - Reform of mental health legislation (pdf 70KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2003
In 2002, the government published a draft Bill setting out proposed changes to the current Mental Health Act 1983. While the need to reform current legislation is widely accepted, the proposed changes have been criticised by health professionals, service providers, users and carers alike. The government is currently consulting about the changes. This briefing analyses issues concerning overlap with other legislation and examines alternative ways forward for mental health policy and the provision of services.
199 - Improving children's diet (pdf 113KB)
Four page POST report summary, July 2003
Full report (1MB) (pdf 1.1MB) (pdf 1.1MB)
Eighty page POST report, September 2003
Recent years have seen an increasing focus on improving children's diet as part of an overall strategy for preventing chronic disease. This has been prompted by evidence that: young people in the UK and elsewhere are eating too much saturated fat, sugars and salt and too few fruit and vegetables; some conditions - notably diabetes and obesity - are increasingly affecting children; diseases normally associated with adult life have their roots in poor eating habits during childhood. This note summarises a forthcoming POST report which looks at the evidence linking children's diet with chronic disease, details recent trends and analyses the policy options for improving children's diets.
198 - Sex Selection (pdf 102KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2003
The recent development of more reliable techniques offers prospective parents a better chance of influencing whether they have a girl or a boy. This has brought a new focus to the issues around sex selection. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) will publish the findings of a wide-ranging review of sex selection regulation and technology, and advise government on whether new legislation is required, later this year. This briefing focuses on the regulatory options for sperm sorting and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).
194 - Medical Self-test Kits (pdf 174KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2003
The Human Genetics Commission will shortly publish advice to Government on issues related to the supply of genetic tests direct-to-the-public. However, it is not only genetic tests that are increasingly available over the counter and via the internet, but also a variety of other medical tests. This briefing describes the range of tests available and discusses the implications of self-testing for individuals and for the NHS.
193 - Food Poisoning (pdf 127KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2003
Cases of food poisoning in the UK increased significantly through the 1980s and 1990s. This trend has started to reverse in recent years but food poisoning remains a public health concern, with an estimated one in five people affected by infectious intestinal disease each year. The Government has set a target to reduce foodborne disease by 20% between 2001 and 2006. This briefing describes the trends in foodborne disease in the UK and examines options for meeting the Government target.
184 - Caesarean Sections (pdf 242KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
One in five births in the UK are now by caesarean section (CS). Public debate has focussed attention on how medical staff and/or mothers decide on a CS birth. The impact of CS on maternal and child health, and the high cost of CS compared with vaginal birth, make this a public health issue. Policies are set at a local level, leading to a wide variation in practice. The Government has recently recognised a need for national standards and clinical guidelines in this area. This briefing examines reasons for the increase in the CS rate and implications for health policy.
180 - The UK Biobank (pdf 245KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
In June 1999, the Wellcome Trust and Medical Research Council (MRC) announced a UK Population Biomedical Collection. This project - now called the UK Biobank - will establish a UK genetic databank by collecting blood samples from some 500,000 people. Researchers will apply for access to the Biobank data to study the factors behind common serious disorders such as heart disease, stroke, cancer and diabetes. This briefing describes the background to the UK Biobank, and examines issues raised such as consent, confidentiality, ownership and oversight.
174 - Stem Cell Research (pdf 274KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2002
In January 2001, Parliament agreed regulations to allow research for therapeutic purposes on cells derived from human embryos. As part of this agreement, a House of Lords Select Committee on Stem Cell Research was formed to examine the issues in more detail. This briefing sets out recent legal and technical developments in the area of stem cell research and considers the issues they raise.
172 - Labelling GM Foods (pdf 215KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2002
No new GM foods have been approved in the EU since 1997. Recent European Commission proposals to extend the GM labelling regime could inadvertently result in this de facto moratorium being further extended. The Commission considers the moratorium illegal, and is concerned that it might be challenged through the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The new labelling proposals are intended to extend consumer choice, but the Government has expressed concerns that they might prove difficult to implement in practice. This briefing describes the background to the proposals and examines the options available.
171 - vCJD in the future (pdf 255KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2002
Variant Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (v-CJD) was first defined in the UK in 1996. It is widely assumed that v-CJD is caused by eating BSE-infected food. If so, the number of people potentially at risk of contracting the disease could be very large. However, there is considerable uncertainty over the likely future scale of the outbreak; it is not clear whether the 100 or so cases observed to date merely represent the 'tip of the iceberg', or whether the number affected has already peaked and is likely to tail off. This briefing outlines the main factors that will influence the number of future cases, considers models that estimate the total number of deaths, and discusses the policy implications.
168 - MS Treatments & NICE (pdf 249KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2002
Recent publicity about whether disease modifying drugs to treat multiple sclerosis (MS) should be available on the NHS has focused attention on the role of NICE (the National Institute for Clinical Excellence). NICE provides evidence-based guidance for the NHS, to ensure doctors use the most effective and affordable treatments. This briefing outlines how NICE evaluates clinical- and cost-effectiveness and examines the wider issues raised by health technology appraisal.
166 - Bio-terrorism (pdf 237KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2001
In the last 10 years, policymakers have become increasingly concerned over the threat of terrorist attack using biological weapons (BW). Recent anthrax attacks in the US have intensified those concerns. This briefing note outlines the nature of the various BW and their effectiveness, assesses which agents are most likely to be available and looks at UK plans to manage the consequences of BW attacks.
165 - Biometrics and Security (pdf 236KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2001
Biometric technology identifies individuals automatically by using their biological or behavioural characteristics. It has a number of current and potential applications relating to national security and law enforcement, which are considered in this briefing. The emergency anti-terrorism bill, soon to be presented before Parliament, will include proposals that impact on the collection and sharing of biometric data by police and customs. This gives Parliamentarians the opportunity to discuss issues relating to the use of biometric technology
162 - Health Benefits of Physical Activity (pdf 237KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2001
Physical activity is widely accepted as being beneficial to health. However only a minority of the UK population achieves recommended levels of physical activity and levels have declined in recent years. This briefing describes the health benefits of physical activity, looks at trends in activity levels among the UK population and examines policy options for encouraging people to be physically active more frequently.
160 - Access to Medicines in the Developing World (pdf 149KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2001
Access to pharmaceuticals, such as anti-HIV drugs, in the developing world has attracted much recent attention. It was discussed by the Council of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in June 2001 and has been the subject of trade disputes, a high profile legal case, and campaigns by charities such as Oxfam. This briefing outlines the international intellectual property (IP) regime and examines options through which developing countries can access effective treatments.
157 - GM Animals (pdf 160KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2001
Use of genetically modified (GM) animals in research has increased tenfold in the last decade. This has occurred against a general decline in the overall number of animals used in scientific procedures. This briefing describes recent trends in the use of GM animals, examines the underlying reasons for these trends and looks at possible future developments. Specific welfare issues relating to the production and use of GM animals are also examined.
156 - Managing Human Error (pdf 184KB)
Eight page POSTnote, June 2001
The recent (June 2001) publication of the Cullen Report into the Paddington rail crash has once more focused media and public attention on large-scale accidents. Such incidents are often followed by calls for blame to be allocated to individuals at the 'sharp end' of the industry in question. In addition, small-scale workplace accidents account for over 200 deaths per year and over 180,000 injuries. This briefing looks at human factors which are liable to cause such errors, examines how their effects can be minimised and analyses the implications for health and safety policy.
154 - Depleted Uranium (pdf 327KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2001
Depleted uranium (DU) munitions were used in both the Gulf War and the Balkans. Exposure to DU has been suggested as a possible cause of unexplained illness among veterans of these campaigns. The House of Commons Defence Select Committee has monitored concerns over DU throughout the 1990s. It asked POST to prepare this briefing to address; military advantages and disadvantages of DU and possible alternatives; potential risks posed to human health.
152 - Indoor Allergens and Asthma (pdf 103KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2000
The number of people diagnosed as having asthma has more than doubled in the last 30 years. Similar trends are seen with other allergic disorders such as hay fever and eczema. This has led to speculation that increased exposure to allergens - particularly those found indoors - might be a factor behind the trends. This briefing looks at recent trends in asthma, examines the possible factors behind them and discusses the issues that arise.
149 - Incineration of Household Waste (pdf 47KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2000
Recent national waste strategies have led to the suggestion that the numbers of waste incinerators may increase significantly. This raises concerns over the health effects of pollution and the role of incineration in waste management.
146 - GM Farm Trials (pdf 86KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2000
Concerns that growing genetically modified (GM) crops on a commercial scale in the UK may have adverse effects on the environment prompted the government to launch farm-scale evaluations (FSEs) in spring 1999. These will assess the abundance and diversity of wildlife (biodiversity) in fields of GM crops compared to fields of conventional crops. But the FSEs have been the target of a high profile campaign to destroy the crops. This note details recent developments in the FSEs and examines the issues that arise.
145 - Patents and Gene Sequences (pdf 84KB)
Two page POSTnote, July 2000
The international project to map and sequence the human genome has stimulated a debate about patenting. Recent developments such as the announcement of a ‘first draft' of the genome have served to intensify the issue. This briefing outlines the progress to date of sequencing efforts and examines the intellectual property rights (IPR) issues that arise
142 - Human Genome Research - summary (pdf 156KB)
Four page POST report summary, June 2000
Full report (pdf 424KB)
Seventy-four page POST report, July 2000
On June 26 2000, scientists in the UK and US announced the forthcoming publication of a ‘first draft' of the sequence of the human genome. While this is a significant milestone, it is by no means the end of the quest to crack the secrets of the human genetic code. Indeed, it is perhaps best thought of as the ‘end of the beginning' of such endeavours. In the coming years the knowledge gleaned from such research will have profound implications for the way doctors classify, diagnose treat and prevent disease. This POST report outlines the main developments, examines the implications and discusses the issues that arise.
141 - Stem Cell Research (pdf 134KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2000
Research in animals suggests that stem cells-the precursors of the more specialised cells that make up organs and tissues-may be used to repair diseased or damaged tissue. Cells derived from early stage embryos may be particularly useful. While it is not clear whether this research can be repeated in humans, any such move would raise legal and ethical issues. This briefing outlines recent developments in stem cell research, looks at the potential applications and analyses the issues that arise.
140 - Early Years Learning (pdf 233KB)
Twelve page POST report, June 2000
This report was prepared as background briefing for the House of Commons Education and Employment Select Committee inquiry into Early Years Education. It summarises the scientific research on the development of the brain and the psychological development of children, and studies that have compared the outcomes of different types of pre-school education, and discusses the implications of this research for early years education policy. The Committee's report can be found here.
139 - Genetic Testing (pdf 101KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2000
Within the next few weeks, scientists will publish a ‘working draft' of the human genome. One impact of this will be the development of genetic tests for a range of different purposes. Such tests will eventually change the way that diseases are classified, allow more accurate diagnosis, provide doctors with predictive tools, and allow drugs to be ‘matched' with patients. This briefing note examines recent developments in the field of genetic testing, and analyses the issues that arise.
134 - Technologies for Independence in Later Life (pdf 172KB)
Eight page POSTnote, February 2000
The UK, along with most countries in the industrialised world, is seeing an increase in the number of older people within the population, due to declining fertility and mortality rates. About 25 per cent. of the population will be over 60 in 2020. There are many issues associated with this, the most important being the goal of maintaining autonomy and independent living for as long as possible. This briefing explores the technologies currently available to meet the needs of older people and analyses their accessibility to the end-user.
131 - Health Concerns and the MMR Vaccine (pdf 103KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 1999
A number of recent scientific studies have investigated possible adverse health effects in infants receiving the MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella) vaccine. The studies focus on the question of whether measles-containing vaccines, including MMR, are associated with the onset of intestinal complaints and/or behavioural disorders. This briefing summarises the evidence from such studies and examines the issues that arise.
129 - GM Threshold for non-GM Foods (pdf 97KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 1999
In October 1999, the European Commission (EC) published proposals on de-minimis thresholds for labeling of genetically modified (GM) foods. These recognise that even where manufacturers attempt to exclude GM ingredients from their products some ‘accidental contamination' may occur. The new proposal is to require labeling only where the GM content of an ingredient obtained from non-GM sources exceeds a 1 per cent. threshold. This briefing note reviews the background to the Commission's proposed threshold and examines the issues that arise
127 - Hormones in Beef (pdf 47KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 1999
In February 1998, a WTO Dispute Settlement Body ruled that an EU ban on imports of US beef from cattle treated with growth promoting hormones violated international trade rules. This POSTnote looks at the scientific basis of the EU ban and examines the options open to the EU in the light of the WTO ruling.
124 - Cystic Fibrosis (pdf 200KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1999
This briefing summarises recent developments in understanding, diagnosis and treatment of CF, and examines the issues that arise.
123 - Meningitis (pdf 84KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1999
Recent outbreaks of meningitis in the UK have led to calls for a more widespread immunisation programme against this disease. This briefing note explains the causes of meningitis, examines the vaccines available and discusses the issues that arise.
122 - Organophosphates (pdf 131KB)
Eight page POSTnote, December 1998
Recent years have seen concerns intensify over the potential adverse effects of organophosphate pesticides on people (notably sheep farmers) exposed to low doses over long periods of time. This report summarises the current state of research in this area and examines the issues that arise.
119 - Health Claims and Foods (pdf 69KB)
Eight page POST report, October 1998
Recent years have seen an increasing number of products sold under food law for which health claims are made. Many more such products (functional foods) are likely to appear in the coming years. This briefing note looks at recent developments in this area and examines the issues that arise.
118 - Anti-HIV Drugs (pdf 104KB)
Eight page POST report, July 1998
This briefing outlines recent developments in anti-HIV drugs, and examines the issues that arise.
115 - Genetically Modified Foods (pdf 32KB)
Four page report summary, May 1998
POST has analysed recent developments in GM foods. This note summarises the report and the issues of interest to parliamentarians.
113 - Cannabis Update (pdf 47KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1998
POST reviewed the extent of use, health and psychological effects of cannabis in a 1996 report. Since then, debate has continued on its legal status, and the Lord's Science and Technology Committee is starting an inquiry into scientific aspects of this drug and its effects. This note summarises findings relevant to the current parliamentary debate over cannabis.
111 - Chemical and Biological Weapons (pdf 39KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1998
With the current concern over remaining chemical and biological weapons (CBW) capability in Iraq, Parliamentary interest has been high. This note looks at some of the CBW agents of concern and related aspects.
109 - Health Risks and Mobile Phones (pdf 44KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 1998
The rising market for mobile phones has been accompanied by concerns over their safety, especially that the radio frequencies used to transmit signals may cause harm (most notably cancer). Such concerns relate both to the siting of the transmitter 'base' stations and the use of hand-held receivers. This briefing note looks at the evidence behind such concerns, and the policy issues that arise.
108 - Hormone Mimicking Chemicals (pdf 71KB)
Eight page report, January 1998
Some synthetic and natural chemicals can mimic natural hormones, and there are questions whether there are sufficient amounts of such chemicals in the diet or the environment to cause adverse effects on human health (eg. on sperm counts) or to affect wildlife. This report looks at the scientific evidence on this subject and the policy issues arising.
107 - Gulf War Illnesses (pdf 43KB)
Four page report summary, December 1997
Since the 1991 Gulf War, many UK and US veterans have complained of a range of debilitating symptoms which they attribute to the after-effects of service in the Gulf. This has led to a substantial research effort on both sides of the Atlantic to try and determine the extent of such illnesses and whether they can be related to Gulf service. The POST report analyses this work, what conclusions can be drawn from it, and how soon the remaining uncertainties can be expected to narrow, if at all.
105 - Vitamin B6 (pdf 45KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 1997
Proposals by the Government to restrict access to high dosage vitamin B6 supplements are encountering fierce opposition on a number of grounds-principle as well as detail. This note explores what is behind the issue, whether dietary supplements should be regulated and if so, the basis on which safe upper limits should be set.
104 - Safer Eating (pdf 58KB)
Four page report summary, October 1997
Food safety has been an increasing focus of parliamentary and public debate, with the Pennington Group inquiry on E. coli O157, concerns over rising levels of food poisoning in general, standards of hygiene in abattoirs etc., as well as the debate over the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and its remit. An important part of this debate concerns bacterial food poisoning, which POST has just reviewed. This note summarises the full report and its findings.
103 - BSE and CJD Update (pdf 74KB)
Eight page report, October 1997
Since a new form of human CJD emerged with its postulated link with BSE, the pace of scientific enquiry has intensified-both in terms of understanding the passage of BSE into and between cattle, and in assessing the risks of BSE being transmitted to people. As a consequence, some uncertainties have narrowed. This note reviews the current state of knowledge on both BSE transmission in cattle and the occurrence of new variant CJD in humans.
102 - Ozone Layer Depletion and Health (pdf 50KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 1997
This note discusses the latest evidence on ozone depletion and UVR levels in the UK, their health implications and related issues.
101 - Bacterial Food Poisoning (pdf 58KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 1997
POST is preparing a report on bacterial food poisoning, the underlying causes, and the research and regulatory issues that arise. The report will be available in October 1997, but this interim briefing highlights some of the key trends and questions raised.
95 - Ecstasy: Recent Science (pdf 29KB)
Two page POSTnote, March 1997
Recently some results of studies on the effects of Ecstasy on humans have started to shed light on the likely impacts of chronic use of the drug. There is now evidence that it does affect mood over the longer term (causing depression) and may also affect cognitive performance.
94 - Fetal Awareness (pdf 73KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1997
There is concern in some parts of the British Parliament on the possibility that fetuses may feel pain, particularly in the context of abortion. This note summarises the basic biological development of the growing fetus, and the different views as to when it may be capable of awareness and feeling pain.
92 - Treating Problem Behaviour in Young Children (pdf 86KB)
Eight page report, February 1997
Ritalin is in the headlines as a way of calming down disruptive young schoolchildren. What is behind this, and is it justified to use medicine to treat behaviour?
87 - Psychological Evaluation and Gun Control (pdf 89KB)
Eight page report, November 1996
Proposals for tighter controls following Dunblane fall into two categories-tighter certification procedures and control of guns themselves. This looks at the limits of better psychological profiling for applicants for firearm certificates and other technical matters related to the issue.
85 - BSE: The Cull Policy and the Disease (pdf 101KB)
12 page report, October 1996
Scientific understanding of the factors affecting the spread of BSE among UK cattle has advanced with recent data on the incubation period and on the extent of maternal transmission, and the application of a sophisticated epidemiological model at Oxford University. This note looks at the conclusions on the likely impact of different culling options, and implications for the assessment of human health risk.
82 - Fine Particles and their Effects on Health (pdf 121KB)
12 page POST report, June 1996
This report looks at the increasing evidence of a statistical link between the levels of particulate air pollution and mortality through respiratory and coronary disease. The report looks at the sources, the levels, and the epidemiology of the link and also what might be done to reduce mortality through this route.
79 - Common Illegal Drugs and their Effects - Cannabis, Ecstasy, Amphetamines and LSD (pdf 50KB)
Four page POST report summary, May 1996
This detailed report reviews what is known of the proven and potential health impacts of the most common illegal drugs used in the UK. The report looks at the mechanisms by which drugs have their psychological effects, the evidence on their adverse physical side-effects, and the possible psychological after-effects (dependency, depression, etc.). The report includes much detail on the extent to which these drugs are taken in the UK, particularly amongst the young, and discusses the reasons for the limited impact of educational strategies. The report also covers the use of drugs while driving, synthetic manufacture, evidence of the effects of regulatory regimes on consumption, drug testing and the policy issues which arise, against the background of a Government initiative to control the supply and use of these illegal drugs.
78 - BSE CJD - Science, Uncertainty and Risk (pdf 222KB)
12 page report, April 1996
This reviews the progression of the BSE outbreak in cattle and describes what is known of the nature of the infective agent (BSE prion). The report then analyses the potential risk of transmission from cattle to humans, and the emergence of the new variant of Creutzfeld-Jakob disease (CJD), and considers what would be required in order to carry out a proper quantitative risk assessment of the risks to humans of the disease.
68 - Minimal Access (Keyhole) Surgery and its Implications (pdf 51KB)
Four page POST report summary, October 1995
This looks at the rapid growth in keyhole surgery techniques throughout the UK health service, and issues of training, evaluation and cost effectiveness.
66 - Vaccines and their Future Role in Public Health (pdf 53KB)
Four page POST report summary, July 1995
Reviews the large areas of scientific opportunity in new vaccine development and the barriers inhibiting their application.