Physical sciences and IT

389 - Cyber Security in the UK (pdf 264KB)
Four page POSTnote, September 2011
Cyber security refers to defences against electronic attacks launched via computer systems. This POSTnote looks at approaches to cyber security in the context of large-scale attacks, with a focus on national infrastructure.

368 - Rare Earth Metals (pdf 477KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2011
Rapid global industrialisation and population growth are placing increasing pressure on availability of raw materials. A group of elements known as the Rare Earth Metals have become a highly sought-after resource for high-technology and low carbon industries. Currently, global demand is increasing, and there are concerns over future availability. This POSTnote examines the debate on future supplies, and discusses the UK and international response.

365 - Electric Vehicles (pdf 325KB)
Four Page POSTnote, October 2010
Interest in the use of electric vehicles (EVs) for road transport is increasing. Potential benefits for the UK include business opportunities and, in the longer term, carbon emissions savings and a reduced dependence on oil. This POSTnote focuses on the extent to which EVs could reduce carbon emissions and examines issues that would surround widespread uptake.

362 - Resilience of UK Infrastructure (pdf 337KB)
Four Page POSTnote, September 2010
National infrastructure, such as transport, energy, water supplies and communications, is essential to the UK. Investment is needed to improve the resilience of infrastructure to risks from existing natural hazards and any effects of future climate change. Vulnerability due to the interdependence of different infrastructure components, where failure of one may lead to failure of others, is also discussed.

361 - Space Weather (pdf 229KB)
Two page POSTnote, July 2010
Space weather can affect space- and groundbased technological systems and cause harm to human health. Monitoring space weather is crucial in order to understand and mitigate its impacts. International collaboration, stimulated by the approaching peak in solar activity, has a key role to play in this area given the global nature of space weather.

355 - Space Debris (pdf 343KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2010
Space debris consists of millions of pieces of man-made material orbiting the Earth. Debris poses a growing threat to satellites and could prevent the use of valuable orbits in the future. Many pieces of debris are too small to monitor but too large to shield satellites against. This POSTnote looks at measures to protect satellites and international agreements and guidelines to reduce the amount of debris generated. In the long term, experts agree that it will be necessary to remove debris from orbit, but this is technically and politically challenging.

351 - Lighting Technology (pdf 197KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2010
Electric lighting accounts for around one-fifth of electricity consumption, both in the UK and globally. Under recent legislation, the traditional incandescent lamp is being phased out in the UK, saving 1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide a year by 2020 (equivalent to the emissions of around 180,000 households today). This POSTnote gives an overview of energy efficient lighting currently available and under development. It examines policy initiatives to drive uptake, as well as relevant health, environmental, public perception and economic issues.

346 - Technology for the Olympics (pdf 172KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2009
From 27th July to 9th September 2012 around 14,500 athletes from 200 nations will compete in the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Almost 10 million tickets will be sold and hundreds of millions will view the Games remotely. Technological challenges range from ensuring that every event is available to viewers on-demand, to ensuring that the emergency services' radio network can function reliably. This note looks at technology plans for the Games, focusing on information communications technology.

338 - Environmental Noise (pdf 112KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2009
Noise pollution affects quality of life and has been linked to health problems. The EU Environmental Noise Directive (END) aims to manage noise and preserve quiet areas by engaging the public, local authorities and operators. This POSTnote examines the effects of noise, the END and practical measures for noise management.

322 - Intelligent Transport Systems (pdf 110KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2009
Information and communication technologies may be widely used on the roads in future in so-called 'Intelligent Transport Systems' (ITS). Systems that warn of upcoming hazards or intervene to avoid them could prevent accidents. ITS could also enable road charging and the better provision of information to drivers, which may help to reduce congestion. This POSTnote outlines current and future applications of ITS in road transport, as well as technical, behavioural and economic limitations to their deployment.

321 - eDemocracy (pdf 114KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2009
The current proposal for an ePetitions system in the House of Commons is just one example of increasing interest in eDemocracy. Reasons include growing use of the internet, the popularity of web based applications such as social networking, and the trend towards digital convergence. This POSTnote looks at recent UK initiatives, and at challenges faced in their design and implementation. It examines debate over the purpose of eDemocracy and where its future lies.

319 - ICT and Carbon Dioxide Emissions (pdf 116KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2008
The global greenhouse gas emissions from information and communication technology (ICT) are comparable with those of the aviation industry. This POSTnote focuses on the energy consumption of ICT equipment, and looks at action being taken to reduce it. It also mentions the wider environmental impact of ICT, and looks briefly at the significant contribution that ICT can make to reducing emissions in other sectors. These approaches are collectively referred to as 'green ICT'.

317 - Future nuclear technologies (pdf 195KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2008
The 2008 Energy White Paper announced the government's intention to allow private companies to propose the building of new nuclear power plants1. This POSTnote provides an assessment of nuclear power generation technologies. It looks at the designs of any new UK reactors and outlines details of the regulatory design assessment process, with an emphasis on safety, security and waste. It also looks at longer term research into reactor design and waste management.

305 -Next generation broadband access (pdf 119KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2008
The UK has comparatively high coverage and take-up of broadband access, but several other countries have begun to deploy 'next generation' infrastructure to support faster access. This POSTnote examines next generation access (NGA) technologies, demand for them and deployments worldwide. It looks at the debate over who should invest in NGA and when, and considers policy issues such as international competitiveness and geographical variations.

299 - Smart materials and systems (pdf 126KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2008
'Smart' materials and systems sense and respond to their environment and have applications in areas as diverse as health, defence and packaging. The UK has a long track record of research in this area and the government has launched a number of initiatives to encourage exploitation of this research. This POSTnote gives an overview of current research and potential applications. It also examines the factors driving smart materials research and those holding back their exploitation.

296 - Next generation telecoms networks (pdf 122KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2007
Traditional telecommunications (telecoms) networks were developed to carry a single type of service, such as voice calls. In contrast, Next Generation Networks (NGNs) carry all types of services, including voice, video and e-mail, on a common platform. BT's planned roll-out of its £10bn '21st Century Network' (21CN) by 2012 will make the UK the first country to replace its incumbent telephone network with an NGN. NGNs offer significant cost savings to operators and new services to consumers, but there are also challenges in maintaining the quality, reliability and security of communications. Their introduction has been described as "the most significant change to telecoms networks since competition was introduced two decades ago".

292-Radio spectrum management (pdf 185KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
The radio spectrum supports services from air traffic control to wireless Internet. Demand for it is increasing with the rise in wireless and mobile services. This POSTnote discusses the UK move towards more liberalised spectrum use. It also outlines debate over the "Digital Dividend": the forthcoming release of radio spectrum as a result of the switchover from analogue to digital television.

291-Electronic waste (pdf 128KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
The UK produces around 15% of the EU's total waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE). The disposal and low rates of recycling of electronic and electrical appliances, many containing toxic components, may pose an environmental hazard. The UK introduced new legislation in January 2007, to minimise WEEE, to support greater recycling and re-use, and to improve the monitoring of final disposal of materials. This POSTnote outlines the types of WEEE and examines the implementation and potential impacts of the legislation.

286-Grids and e-science (pdf 129KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2007
Governments and industry worldwide are spending billions of pounds developing Grid computing - an evolution of the Internet that pools computer resources to process, store and access large amounts of data. Grids already have widespread applications in research and potential in industry and government. They are also an important part of e-science (science using advanced information and communications technologies). This note describes e-science and Grids and details key UK and international projects. It examines the potential impact of the forthcoming Comprehensive Spending Review on e-science, as well as wider policy issues such as Grid security.

279-Internet governance (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2007
There is increasing international debate on 'Internet governance', which encompasses a variety of public policy issues related to internet infrastructure, management and use. This POSTnote describes the structure of the Internet and summarises the debate over its management. It also discusses the prospects for its international governance, following the first meeting of the UN-sponsored Internet Governance Forum.

273 -Military uses of space (pdf 234KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2006
Space plays an increasing role in military activities. Over 800 satellites orbit the earth, many of which have military uses, from reconnaissance to guiding weapons systems. This POSTnote outlines national, EU level and wider military space activities. It discusses small satellite development in the UK and the growing debate over the role of space in European Security and Defence Policy. It highlights concerns over the vulnerability of satellites to accidental damage or hostile acts.

271 Computer crime (pdf 122KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2006
An increasing number of domestic and international criminal activities are using the Internet. Computers and other electronic devices can be tools to commit crime or are targeted by criminals. A personal computer connected to the Internet without protection may be infected with malicious software in under a minute. This briefing discusses the scale and nature of computer crime, the technologies available to protect computers, and highlights the key policy challenges.

270 Data encryption (pdf 124KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2006
Encryption is increasingly used to protect digital information, from personal details held on a computer to financial details transmitted over the Internet. Encryption has many benefits but can also be used to conceal criminal activity. This POSTnote outlines encryption techniques, their applications and their reliability. It also discusses controversial government proposals to give public authorities new powers under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, relating to the handling of encrypted data in criminal investigations.

264-Analogue to digital TV switchover (pdf 127KB)‚
Four page POSTnote, June 2006
In September 2005 the Government committed to switch over from analogue to only digital television in the UK. Digital switchover will occur, region-by-region, between 2008 and 2012. This briefing updates POSTnote 233 on Digital Television and looks at the logistics of implementing the switchover and its implications.

263-Pervasive computing (pdf 116KB)‚
Four page POSTnote, May 2006
Pervasive computing is a rapidly developing area of Information and Communications Technology (ICT). The term refers to the increasing integration of ICT into people‚'s lives and environments, made possible by the growing availability of microprocessors with inbuilt communications facilities. Pervasive computing has many potential applications, from health and home care to environmental monitoring and intelligent transport systems. This briefing provides an overview of pervasive computing and discusses the growing debate over privacy, safety and environmental implications.

262-UK civil space activities (pdf 149KB)‚
Four page POSTnote, March 2006
This POSTnote provides an overview of the UK's civil space activities. It focuses on space exploration and Earth observation, discussing UK participation in international projects in the light of decisions made at a European Space Agency ministerial meeting in December 2005. Preparations for the 2007 comprehensive spending review are underway within government, giving rise to increased debate over the future of UK civil space activities. The note highlights key aspects of this debate such as the future of the UK space industry and the role space plays in drawing young people into science and technology careers.

261-ICT in developing countires (pdf 125KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2006
Information and communication technology (ICT) can help developing countries tackle a wide range of health, social and economic problems. By improving access to information and by enabling communication, ICT can play a role in reaching Millennium Development Goals such as the elimination of extreme poverty, combating serious disease, and achieving universal primary education and gender equality. However the benefits of ICT are not fully realised in many countries: ICT is often out of reach of the poor and those in rural areas. This POSTnote discusses how this problem is being addressed, focusing on new ICT such as internet and mobile phones. It discusses the role of the UK and wider international community, and the effectiveness of projects funded by international aid.

250 - The 24-Hour Society (pdf 124KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2005
In recent years more businesses have begun to operate outside standard hours, contributing to a culture of long or unusual working hours. The '24-hour society' can increase efficiency and help to meet consumer demand, but can also have serious health and social impacts. This briefing outlines the driving factors behind the 24-hour society and reviews options to manage its negative impacts, ranging from the European Union (EU) Working Time Directive to new technological solutions.

242- Open source software (pdf 125KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2005
Open source software (OSS) is computer software that has its underlying 'source-code' made available under a licence. This can allow developers and users to adapt and improve it. Policy on the use of OSS in government was updated in 2004. This briefing explains how OSS works, outlines current and prospective uses and examines recent policy developments. It discusses its advantages and disadvantages and examines factors affecting uptake.

237- Managing the UK plutonium stockpile (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2005
As a result of both civilian and military activities in the UK, a stockpile of plutonium has accumulated, for which there is currently no long term management strategy. Proposed options include treating it as a waste or using it in nuclear fuel to generate electricity. Discussions have recently been initiated by the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) on the implications of managing plutonium as waste; currently none is classified as waste. This note provides background information on the UK's plutonium stockpile and examines safety and proliferation issues. It outlines why a management strategy is required and summarises commentary on long-term options.

233- Digital television (pdf 136KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2004
Digital technology is changing the way television is broadcast and watched, with more channels, interactive services and easier recording. The Government is committed to turning the analogue terrestrial television signal off, starting within the next four years, so eventually all television broadcasting will be digital. Over 55% of UK households already receive digital television, but there are many issues that need to be addressed before the switch over to digital is completed. This POSTnote looks at the implications of and progress towards digital switchover.

225-Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) (pdf 127KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2004
Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology provides a means of automatic identification. It is already widely used in animal tagging and electronic payment, such as Transport for London 'Oyster Cards'. Many other potential applications such as improving supply chain efficiency and reducing crime are being investigated. This note provides an overview of the technology, its current and prospective uses, and outlines the factors limiting its uptake. It then discusses measures being taken to address growing concerns over privacy.

222 - Assessing the risk of terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities (pdf 119KB)
Four page POST report summary, July 2004
Full report (1.4MB) (pdf 1.4MB) (pdf 1.4MB)
148 page POST report, July 2004
Assessing the risk of terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities In recent years there has been increased awareness of the risk of terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities, which could have widespread consequences for the environment and for public health. This POSTnote is a summary of a longer report on this issue, which has been prepared by POST, following a request from the House of Commons Defence Select Committee in July 2002 in its report on Defence and Security in the UK.

218-Speed cameras (pdf 138KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2004
Speed cameras are a key part of the government's strategy for reducing road casualties. There are over 6,000 speed camera sites in the UK. Their use generates widespread debate, with 55 questions posed in Parliament in 2004 alone. This briefing provides an overview of UK speed enforcement policy, focussing on speed cameras. It discusses evidence of their effectiveness and related factors such as causes of road crashes, problems identifying offenders, and public attitudes to camera use. Areas of public concern, such as accusations of revenue raising, are also discussed.

214-New NHS IT (pdf 119KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 2004
The Government has recently signed contracts for a £6 billion modernisation of NHS computer systems in England. This national IT programme has four main parts: electronic patient records, electronic appointment bookings and electronic transmission of prescriptions, along with an upgraded NHS broadband network. However, it involves both managing a large IT procurement and imposing change on the highly devolved NHS. This POSTnote outlines the main projects in the national programme and their potential benefits, then examines key concerns, such as confidentiality, funding and involving clinicians.

209 - Modern methods of house building (pdf 120KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2003
Last week, the Government's Barker Review argued that a UK housing shortage is having widespread economic and social consequences. Government estimates that by 2016 there will be 3 million new UK households. It recently published the Sustainable Communities Plan outlining a major new house building programme to help meet this growth. Government is encouraging modern methods of construction (MMC), which it says can achieve "a step change in the construction industry to produce the quantity and quality of housing we need". Specifically, from 2004 a quarter of new publicly funded social housing must use MMC. MMC primarily involves the manufacture of homes in factories, with potential benefits such as faster construction, fewer housing defects, and reductions in energy use and waste. This note describes the variety of MMC used by UK house builders and assesses the main costs and benefits. It then discusses issues including industry capacity and the quality of housing.

208 - The nuclear energy option in the UK (pdf 123KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2003
The government's recent White Paper on energy policy did not endorse a programme of new nuclear power stations at this time, but declared that "at some point in the future new nuclear build might be necessary if we are to meet our carbon targets." Thus, its policy on nuclear energy is "to keep the option open". Parliamentary interest in this topic is high. This briefing analyses some of the issues associated with keeping the option open that the government and industry might need to resolve. It does not examine whether there is a need to keep the option open nor indeed the precise means for doing this. Rather, it focuses on options for new reactors, the economics of nuclear energy, the knowledge base for nuclear technology, and issues related to waste management, licensing and security.

200 - Government IT projects (pdf 99KB)
Two page POST report summary, July 2003
Full report (400 KB) (pdf 362KB)
Thirty page POST report, July 2003
Government departments have 100 major IT projects underway with a total value of £10 billion. However, over the past five years, IT difficulties have affected, among others, the Criminal Records Bureau, Inland Revenue, National Air Traffic Services and the Department for Work and Pensions. The government has a target for making all services available electronically by 2005, so pressure is increasing to improve IT delivery. This POST report analyses why some government IT projects fail, the measures government has put in place to tackle these problems and their effectiveness.

192 - Nuclear Fusion (pdf 130KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 2003
There is growing interest in using nuclear fusion for generating electricity in the future. The fuel it would use is abundant and it produces no greenhouse gases. International negotiations are under way to construct the next major experimental fusion reactor (ITER) and the US has recently decided to re-enter these discussions. Questions remain over issues such as the economic viability and environmental impact of fusion power and the timescales for its commercialisation. This note discusses such issues and updates POST's previous briefings on fusion research.

187 - Intelligent Transport (pdf 115KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2002
Intelligent transport systems (ITS) combine information technology and communications for transport applications. By allowing communication to, from and between vehicles, ITS could address a number of the aims of the Government's integrated transport policy, such as reducing congestion and accident rates and improving network management. ITS can also enable electronic fee collection in road charging schemes. This briefing describes current and future applications of ITS in road transport. It goes on to discuss questions such as financing, management and safety which need attention if such schemes are to be implemented successfully.

185 - Copyright & the Internet (pdf 241KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
The internet has expanded electronic access to music, films, books and other digital content, challenging existing notions of copyright protection and enforcement. A recent EC Directive addresses the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) on the internet; the UK patent office is consulting until 31 October 2002 on proposed changes to UK legislation. This note examines the technological, legal, and enforcement issues as the UK faces the December 2002 deadline for implementing the Directive.

183 - Electronic Privacy (pdf 240KB)
Four page POSTnote, October 2002
The growth in use of the internet and other forms of electronic communication has resulted in a significant increase in the capacity to collect and process data about individuals electronically, with consequent implications for personal privacy. Concerns have also been expressed about the privacy aspects of recent legislation aimed at curbing terrorism and crime. This note examines the potential for commercial organisations and the public sector to infringe the privacy of digital communications, how the law can protect such communications and the implications for Government policy.

181 - Broadband Internet Access (pdf 260KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
There are now over 700,000 subscribers to high speed 'broadband' internet access in the UK. With 100,000 new customers being connected each month, progress is being made towards the Government's target "for the UK to have the most extensive and competitive broadband market in the G7 by 2005". However, the UK still has one of the lowest numbers of broadband subscribers in the G7 and a third of UK households are not covered by the main broadband providers. This briefing outlines how broadband internet access can be received, examines international comparisons and considers options to encourage take-up and coverage.

179 - Nuclear Terrorism (pdf 249KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2002
Recent reports of alleged terrorist plans to build a 'dirty bomb' have heightened longstanding concerns about nuclear terrorism. This briefing outlines possible forms of attack, such as: detonation of a nuclear weapon; attacks involving radioactive materials; attacks on nuclear facilities. Legislation addressing these risks and the UK's strategy for coping with them are also considered.

175 - CCTV (pdf 248KB)
Four page POSTnote, April 2002
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance of public areas, such as car parks, housing estates and town centres is increasingly commonplace. For example, 260 cameras monitor the boundaries of the Parliamentary estate. Recently, the Home Office allocated £170 million to fund public area CCTV schemes in England and Wales. This has prompted debate over whether CCTV surveillance reduces crime and whether current legislation appropriately regulates its use. This briefing describes how CCTV is used and examines issues such as its effectiveness, civil liberties and its use in court.

170 - e is for everything? Public policy and converging digital communications (pdf 239KB)
Four page POST report summary, December 2001
Full report (1 MB) (pdf 939KB)
One hundred and twenty page POST report, December 2001
The world of communications is changing rapidly. More than seven out of ten UK adults have mobile phones, over a third of households have home internet access and a similar proportion have digital television. These technologies are also beginning to 'converge', so users can receive similar services on a variety of devices. Setting policy in such a complex and evolving environment is difficult. Early in 2002, the Government plans to publish a draft Communications Bill. This would create a single communications regulator, OFCOM, merging current broadcasting and telecommunications regulators. This note is a summary of a longer report looking at the development of digital communications in the UK, considering the main policy issues and examining the implications of convergence for communications regulation.

These issues were also discussed at a POST seminar on 17 January 2002. Contributions from two of the speakers are available here:
Sir George Young Bt MP
Karen Thomson, CEO AOL UK

167 - Chemical Weapons (pdf 234KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2001
Chemical weapons (CW) have been used in both military and terrorist actions. Recent events have led to increased concern about the potential for further CW use by terrorists. This briefing complements POSTnote 166 on Bio-terrorism and considers the nature of various chemical agents, international efforts to stop proliferation and UK preparedness for attacks.

165 - Biometrics and Security (pdf 236KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2001
Biometric technology identifies individuals automatically by using their biological or behavioural characteristics. It has a number of current and potential applications relating to national security and law enforcement, which are considered in this briefing. The emergency anti-terrorism bill, soon to be presented before Parliament, will include proposals that impact on the collection and sharing of biometric data by police and customs. This gives Parliamentarians the opportunity to discuss issues relating to the use of biometric technology

159 - Regulating Internet Content (pdf 146KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 2001
Concerns over the nature of some publicly available material on the internet have led to calls for stricter regulation. Opponents point to the technical and legal difficulties of regulation in a global and unlicensed environment, as well as disquiet over restraining trade and personal liberty. The recent Communications White Paper included no plans to introduce statutory internet content regulation, but the remit of the new communications regulator (Ofcom) would cover internet content. This note considers options for regulation and examines Government policy in this area.

156 - Managing Human Error (pdf 184KB)
Eight page POSTnote, June 2001
The recent (June 2001) publication of the Cullen Report into the Paddington rail crash has once more focused media and public attention on large-scale accidents. Such incidents are often followed by calls for blame to be allocated to individuals at the 'sharp end' of the industry in question. In addition, small-scale workplace accidents account for over 200 deaths per year and over 180,000 injuries. This briefing looks at human factors which are liable to cause such errors, examines how their effects can be minimised and analyses the implications for health and safety policy.

155 - Online Voting (pdf 243KB)
Four page POSTnote, May 2001
Uncertainty over the 2000 US presidential election count has stimulated interest in better voting methods. These aim to increase participation, lower the costs of running elections and improve the accuracy of results. This briefing note looks at options for using new technologies in voting, focussing on the pros and cons of internet voting and the implications of such a radical change in the way that elections are conducted.

154 - Depleted Uranium (pdf 327KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 2001
Depleted uranium (DU) munitions were used in both the Gulf War and the Balkans. Exposure to DU has been suggested as a possible cause of unexplained illness among veterans of these campaigns. The House of Commons Defence Select Committee has monitored concerns over DU throughout the 1990s. It asked POST to prepare this briefing to address; military advantages and disadvantages of DU and possible alternatives; potential risks posed to human health.

150 - Galileo - a European Satellite Navigation System (pdf 53KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 2000
On 20 December the European Union Transport Council will consider whether to develop an European, civilian satellite navigation system (Galileo). Currently, the two main systems are run by the US and Russia, under military control, raising issues for Europe of sovereignty and security. This briefing describes satellite navigation, examines the case for Galileo and considers topics such as funding and management.

148 - National Missile Defence in the US (pdf 44KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 2000
The US National Missile Defence (NMD) programme aims to protect the US against a limited number of ballistic missiles, fired from a 'state of concern'. NMD plans have attracted criticism that it is technically difficult to implement and risks destabilising international security by undermining nuclear arms control. In particular, NMD deployment would breach the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the US and Russia. Current plans for NMD envisage the use of upgraded facilities on UK soil, which would require UK permission. This note sets out the design and technical challenges of the proposed NMD system, and discusses the issues, focussing on the UK's role.

143 - Science Centres (pdf 48KB)
Four page POSTnote, July 2000
The Millennium Commission is investing over £250 million in building new Science Centres in the UK, covering diverse topics from space to life. In parallel, a new Wellcome Wing opened last week at the Science Museum. Issues raised include co-ordination between the centres and ongoing funding. This POST Note explores the content of the new millennium Science Centres and the Wellcome Wing and considers their future.

137 - Mixed Oxide Nuclear Fuel (MOX) (pdf 86KB)
Eight page POSTnote, April 2000
MOX is a mixture of uranium and plutonium oxides used in some overseas nuclear power stations. British Nuclear Fuels plc (BNFL) produced MOX for export on a small scale at Sellafield. A full-scale plant has been built but is awaiting government approval for operation. Recent events surrounding the falsification of data about MOX fuel pellets by BNFL workers raised international concerns and may have implications for the approval of the new plant. This POST Note gives an overview of how MOX is made and used, and looks at some of the issues raised.

134 - Technologies for Independence in Later Life (pdf 172KB)
Eight page POSTnote, February 2000
The UK, along with most countries in the industrialised world, is seeing an increase in the number of older people within the population, due to declining fertility and mortality rates. About 25 per cent. of the population will be over 60 in 2020. There are many issues associated with this, the most important being the goal of maintaining autonomy and independent living for as long as possible. This briefing explores the technologies currently available to meet the needs of older people and analyses their accessibility to the end-user.

132 - A New UK Synchrotron (pdf 80KB)
Two page POSTnote, December 1999
Synchrotrons are powerful X-ray sources, used to probe the structures of materials at the atomic level. They have a wide range of applications. The UK already has a major Synchrotron Radiation Source, at Daresbury, Cheshire. The decision to build a new national synchrotron has raised issues over its design and location. This POST Note examines the need for a new UK synchrotron and analyses the issues that arise.

130 - The Sun and Space Weather (pdf 128KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 1999
In much the same way as the weather on Earth can change rapidly, conditions in space are also very variable. One of the main factors affecting this so-called ‘space weather' is the level of solar activity. Although this is constantly changing, one feature is a cyclical variation, with solar activity peaking every 11 years or so. The next such peak is due in 2000; there are concerns over its disruptive potential due to our increasing reliance on satellite-based services. This POST Note describes the factors influencing space weather, examines its potential disruptive effects and discusses the issues that arise.

126 - Near Earth Objects (NEOs) (pdf 792KB)
16 page POST Report, April 1999
Recent advances in ground-based, satellite and theoretical astronomy have proved the Solar System's dynamism and complexity-in particular, that some of its minor members, called Near Earth Objects may impact the Earth in the future. In the UK, the USA and Australia, parliamentary interest has been stimulated. This report sets the results of recent surveys in context and considers the risks involved.

120 - Nuclear Fusion Update (pdf 44KB)
Four page POSTnote, November 1998
POSTnote 40 (1993) examined international progress towards power from nuclear fusion and its future prospects. Recent years have seen technical developments but also continued debate and uncertainty over whether fusion will ever be economic as an energy source. This briefing describes recent developments in this area, looks at how the prospects for future energy supply from fusion have changed and examines the issues that arise.

114 - Internet Commerce: Threats and Opportunities (pdf 83KB)
Eight page POSTnote, April 1998
Although slow to start, electronic commerce over the internet is growing fast and making it necessary to address key issues which will determine the way in which this truly global marketplace develops. This note explains some of the arcane and complex related issues (eg. encryption).

112 - Electronic Road Charging (pdf 47KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1998
Charging drivers for road use could raise revenues for transport projects and reduce congestion and improve the environment in urban areas. The results of initial trials of both the technology and driver behaviour are becoming available, but many issues remain unresolved. The Transport White Paper in May 1998 will be the opportunity for Government to clarify its view on the future role seen for such technologies.

111 - Chemical and Biological Weapons (pdf 39KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1998
With the current concern over remaining chemical and biological weapons (CBW) capability in Iraq, Parliamentary interest has been high. This note looks at some of the CBW agents of concern and related aspects.

110 - Electronic Government (pdf 55KB)
Four page report summary, February 1998
Full report (html version)
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have revolutionised many businesses and transformed relationships with customers. In the public sector however, effects have been less dramatic, raising the question whether the full benefits of ICT in delivering public services are being realised. The potential of ICT also inspires visions of a more open Government with greater public participation. POST has reviewed ‘electronic government' and how ICTs might be used to transform the relationships between government and the citizen. This note summarises the full report.

109 - Health Risks and Mobile Phones (pdf 44KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 1998
The rising market for mobile phones has been accompanied by concerns over their safety, especially that the radio frequencies used to transmit signals may cause harm (most notably cancer). Such concerns relate both to the siting of the transmitter ‘base' stations and the use of hand-held receivers. This briefing note looks at the evidence behind such concerns, and the policy issues that arise.

98 - The Millennium Threat - an Update (pdf 48KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 1997
Many computer systems may fail in transition to the Year 2000, because of the way they store and manipulate dates. Initiatives to address this problem in the public and private sectors have grown in the last year, but much remains to be done. This note updates evidence on the potential scale of the ‘date change problem' and the issues raised.

96 - Getting Opinion Polls 'Right' (pdf 65KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1997
With the approaching UK general election, increasing attention is being given to opinion polls, which performed rather poorly in the last election. This note looks at what has been done since then to improve the accuracy of polls and their ability to predict voter behaviour.

93 - Fraud and Computer Data Matching (pdf 49KB)
Four page POSTnote, February 1997
Technical advances in computers and telecommunications allow targeting in marketing and can also help combat fraud. This raises questions of compatibility with current data protection legislation which have resonated in Parliament. This note analyses these trends, including data matching, and the policy issues raised.

89 - Computer Systems and the Millennium (pdf 51KB)
Four page POSTnote, December 1996
Many computer systems may fail in the transition to the Year 2000, because of the way they store and manipulate dates. This note analyses the potential scale of the ‘date change problem' and the policy issues raised.

86 - Making it in Miniature - Nanotechnology, UK Science and its applications (pdf 77KB)
Four page POST report summary, October 1996
Nanotechnology is one of those generic technologies underpinning many areas of technological progress, and this report looks at the various applications areas and how well equipped the UK science base is to meet current and future challenges. The report finds that while strengths exist and have been helped by previous Government support, nanotechnology has rather slipped between the cracks in the technology foresight programme and is suffering as a result. Policies to redress this are explored.

80 - Impacts on Earth from Space (pdf 52KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 1996
This report reviews the numbers of satellites in orbit and other sources of potential debris returning to Earth, and the measures for their tracking and control.

77 - Counterfeit Banknotes (pdf 53KB)
Four page POSTnote, March 1996 Counterfeiting of bank notes and other documents is becoming an increasing problem, due to advances in reprographic technologies. This note looks at the extent of the problem and counter-measures.

73 - Looking Down on Earth - the future of Earth Observation from Space (pdf 61KB)
Four page POST report summary, January 1996
This report looks at the increasing reliance on satellite-based instruments for a range of applications on Earth, such as monitoring for agricultural fraud, land use planning, weather and climatology. It also examines the potential applications which are, as yet, unrealised and the barriers which stand in the way of more effective use of satellite data.

72 - Ballistic Missile Defence (pdf 164KB)
Four page POSTnote, January 1996
This looks at current concerns as to the whether the UK should pursue a limited anti-ballistic missile defence.

64 - Mobile Telephone Crime (pdf 66KB)
Four page POSTnote, June 1995
Describes the growth of ‘technological crime' involving mobile telephones, from theft to fraud and ‘cloning', and examines approaches to mitigating the problem.

63 - Working at a Distance - UK teleworking and its implications (pdf 51KB)
Four page POST report summary, June 1995
Reviews current trends in teleworking in the UK, its potential in employment terms, and its effects on transport, etc.

62 - Information Superhighways - the UK National Information Infrastructure (pdf 55KB)
Four page POST report summary, May 1995
Reviews the current state of the telecommunications infrastructure in the UK, and how far it meets the needs of the NII. Also reviews NII uses and relevant issues.